Monday, September 30, 2019
Man Warms Up The Earth Essay
Abstract Many causes of global warming have been theorized by scientists and researchers for decades. Some say it is caused by natural causes like orbital planetary alignments and geothermal progression of the earth while there are many who contradict by saying that man has brought it upon himself through his constant abuse of the environment. Economical and political principles add up to the confusing problem being focused on. Whatever the causes may truly be, global warming is already causing enough trouble for mankind and everything should be done to stop or slow it down. Man Warms Up The Earth            Global warming is a very sensitive issue in the scientific field. Many scientists and environmentalists are doing their best to create programs for governments and communities to become more aware of human activities that are aggravating the situation. Many people believe that industrialization and other capitalist concerns have to stop or slacken its pace to rehabilitate the damaged environment. There are those, however, who also believe that nature is simply running its usual course and that man does not have any way to stop it.            The debates have grown mostly in favor of those who believe that man causes global warming. A large number of studies have already been released and reported through different media like television, radio, newspapers, scientific journals, magazines, etc. Countries have already tried to address the problem by convening through agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Montreal Protocol. Assessments of these activities, however, do not always show that the agreements have been enough to really create change in the damage mankind has been doing to his environment.            These studies, agreements and activities lead to the conclusion that global warming and earth’s destruction is inevitable and coming too fast. It creates a sense of panic for those who would read and listen to the debates being engaged in by scientists and environmentalists. This paper seeks to know the real causes of global warming and to conclude whether man truly gives a great contribution to the issue. What is global warming?            Global warming pertains to the increasing hot temperature within the planet. According to scientific studies, carbon dioxide and methane gases collect in the atmosphere and form a sort of thick blanket that traps the heat within the earth. When heat is trapped, the resulting climate becomes warmer and changes the natural temperature and weather of the planet.            Although global warming seems just a simple change towards hotter temperatures, its effects can be devastating. Warmer temperatures can make glaciers melt which can cause the release of greenhouse gases and unavoidable water shortages in certain areas of the globe. The melting ice can also cause big floods that can drown out many parts of the world.  Warmer sea surfaces can lead to more serious hurricanes. The rising temperature also causes the increase of pests and the diseases that come along with it. The change in temperature can also affect the many habitats of the 30 million other creatures on earth and further their extinction which will upset the ecological balance even more. Man may be the only driving force towards these changes yet these affect the total population of the whole world.            According to different scientists, global warming has two major causes: natural and man-made or anthropogenic. Natural Causes – Theories and Myths?            Global warming, some scientists believe, is a predicament that is inevitable because of the earth’s cycle of climate changes and natural emission of greenhouse gases by living creatures. Evidences have been given to show that these factors are the main cause of the issue.            Climate Change Cycle. Scientists say that the earth changes its climate every thousands of years although there are variations to the number being projected. There are those who believe that the cycle is every 40,000 years but according to the studies made by Tom Scheffelin (2007), a member of the California Air Resources Board, the climate cycles may be within periods of 1,800 years. He argues that based on marine scientist, Otto Pettersson, the relation of the sun with the orbital alignment of the earth and its moon occurs in the suggested period and this causes the alteration of underwater movement which in turn results to a modified ocean temperature change that consequently revises climate. Pettersson’s theory is based on his own review of many studies including Peter Freuchen’s Book of the Seven Seas (2003) which gives concrete observations and evaluations of tidal cycles. This theory was supported by Dr. Charles Keeling, a carbon dioxide scientist, through his research entitled, â€Å"The 1,800-Year Oceanic Tidal Cycle: A Possible Cause of Rapid Climate Change,†which gives many analysis of ice-core and deep-sea sediment-core records regarding the past million years. According to these theories, the planet shall continue to warm up until the year 2350 and may only return to its current state of temperature after around 900 years.            Carbon Dioxide Emissions. Living creatures naturally emit carbon dioxide as a product of breathing in oxygen. Also according to Scheffelin, current carbon dioxide emissions should not be affecting climate change towards global warming as other scientists propose. â€Å"Carbon dioxide levels track temperature changes between 300 to 1,000 years after the temperature has changed. â€Å" (par. 8) This simply means that carbon dioxide responds to normal biological activity and does not create changes in the earth’s climate.            Methane Gas Emissions and the Arctic Tundra. Some scientists believe that the Arctic Tundra’s gradual thawing is a natural phenomenon and should not cause concern. These researchers theorize that the geothermal heat radiating from the core of the earth is causing the oceans to get warmer. While this is happening, the ocean slowly stops absorbing carbon dioxide at its present rate.  This is a cause for concern because the carbon dioxide content of oceans are fifty times greater than the amount in the atmosphere. Therefore, even if only a two percent decrease rate happens, the amount contained by the atmosphere shall double and cause the oceans to increase its hot temperature even more. There are also theories that say that if the shallow Arctic Ocean will get warmer, it shall release more methane gas which will eventually make the atmosphere even warmer. Al Gore, in his book, The Shadow Our Future Throws (2006), explains that this can cause a great acceleration for global warming. When the tundra begins to thaw, methane gases will be emitted to the atmosphere and â€Å"each methane molecule is twenty times more effective as a greenhouse gas than each molecule of carbon dioxide.†(p. 53) Man-Made Causes            Many causes of global warming are currently being attributed to man’s own destruction of his environment. Specific causes include fossil fuel burning, pollution, population, poor knowledge of environmental use and economic policies that threaten our natural resources.            Fossil Fuel Burning. According to scientists, the burning of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide molecules into the air and these form a thick blanket that traps heat within the planet. Fossil fuel is needed for many of the machines and transportation vehicles that man is using for economic development. Without fossil fuel, industries will not be able to flourish and the economies of many countries will fall.            Carbon dioxide is not the only greenhouse gas that attributes to the entrapment of heat within the earth. Fossil fuels, as the name implies, are resources that have to be uncovered from the earth’s layers underground. Digging up fossil fuel not only releases carbon dioxide but also methane, another greenhouse gas. Continual excavation for fuel and the resulting release of greenhouse gases is therefore dangerous. However, digging up these greenhouse gases is only the start of the problem because the conversion of fossil fuel and its use also result to pollution that adds to the growing problem of global warming.            Pollution. Air pollution is one of the greatest concerns of environmentalists. Scientists who support these ecologically concerned groups say that emissions from cars and other vehicles that use fossil fuel are worsening global warming. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (2007), automobiles are the second largest source of carbon emissions which creates around 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide yearly from the United States alone.            From another part of the planet, Asians have also studied their own contribution to the problem of carbon dioxide emissions. In a study made by Dollaris Suhadi and his colleagues (2005) from the environmental studies faculty of Universiti Putra Malaysia, the photochemical smog in Metropolitan Jakarta is also a major contributor to the problem of air pollution.  According to researchers, photochemical smog is a condition that develops when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are created by the burning of fossil fuel and biomass and are mixed with sunlight to produce dangerous secondary gas pollutants. Ground-level ozone is then produced. The results of the research concludes that smog pollution potential in the location is high because of the increasing traffic emissions of ozone precursors and the meteorological conditions (warm tropic temperature, high solar radiation and calm wind conditions). (p. 118)            Coal burning is also another major contributor to air pollution. This activity is common to many countries because it is a process necessary to get power for the operation of many machinery.  Coal-burning power plants are the largest U.S. source of carbon dioxide pollution  they produce 2.5 billion tons every year. (Natural Resources Defense Council, par. 1)            Ozone Layer. In the 1980s, concern over the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in chemical production was raised in relation to global warming. According to a report published on In Focus, a newsletter propagated by the Interhemispheric Resource Center and Institute for Policy Studies, CFCs and other chemicals are destroying the ozone layer of the earth. The ozone layer is important because it blocks off enough ultra violet rays of the sun towards the earth. Excessive exposure to the ultra violet rays causes skin cancer. According to the report, ozone layer depletion is masking the problem of global warming because its effect on the stratosphere makes the climate seem cooler than it should. The ozone layer simply aids in deceiving people from knowing the alarming rate at which global warming is rising.            Global warming and ozone depletion are interrelated because the rising temperature of the earth also adds to the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. This traps infrared heat in the parts of the atmosphere nearer the earth that should have been thrown back into outer space via the stratosphere. On the average, the earth as a whole reflects around 30 percent of the total radiation back into space and a change in the amount of water vapor or any other element in the ozone layer can affect the heating or cooling of the atmosphere. (Tillery, 2007, p. 577) When the stratosphere is cooler, the increase in water vapor would have an effect on the increase of ice crystals within the ozone, concentrating on the polar regions wherein the CFCs are bound to stay. The CFCs in the ozone near the polar region will then hasten the depletion of the ozone layer at an even faster rate. Population. The seemingly uncontrollable rise of population is another source of concern that can result to global warming. A research was made by a group of scientists from Canada and Spain, regarding the possibility of humans and domestic animals contributing highly to the problem of rising planetary temperatures. The research was done by using allometric relationships that depict standard metabolic and defecation rates of the human and animal populations based on data that were gotten from the 2002 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations. According to the results, the â€Å"combined direct and indirect metabolic sources, estimated at 3.1 GtC year-1 have increased 7 fold since pre-industrial times and are predicted to continue to rise.†(Praire, et.al., 2007, p. 217). This therefore indicates that carbon emissions from living creatures also have a direct effect on the warming temperatures of the environment and may need to be considered for further studies involving global warming. Another cause for global warming attributed to population growth is the destruction of natural forests being done because of the need for additional housing and income. When the population increases, the need for shelter and urbanization also increases. These result to the need to clear up forests for villages and cities. Trees have to be cut down to make houses and furniture. Raw lands have to be turned into farms to create income from agriculture. This has happened in many countries, especially the Third World nations who are grappling in order to cope up with world economy. Denudation of Forests. Forests are the very basic in the ecological system of balance. This is because much of the carbon dioxide on earth is replaced and converted into oxygen by the many trees and plants in these areas. One of the major concerns of environmentalists is the rampant denudation of forests that could help in the balancing off of the carbon emissions of man. A great example of how forests can actually affect global climate was explained by Al Gore. â€Å"When I was flying over the Amazon rain forest in a small plane, I was struck by what happened immediately after a thunderstorm moved across an area of the forest: as soon as the rain stopped, clouds of moisture began to rise from the trees to form new rain clouds that moved west, driven by the wind, where they provided the water for new rain falling out of new thunderstorms. An interruption of this natural process can have a magnified impact. †¦ And when the overarching canopy of leaves is removed, the sudden warming of the forest floor leads to the release of huge quantities of methane and CO2, as a kind of biochemical â€Å"burning†takes place. (p. 51)            The example mentioned above is merely a depiction of how important forests are to mankind with respect to global warming. The Amazon forest and the ones in Indonesia make up most of the forest reserves of the world. The importance of these forests cannot be undermined according to Franz J. Broswimmer (2002). According to this environmentalist, the top 15 underdeveloped countries who are debtors of international institutions have tripled the rates of forest denudation. This is caused by the race towards international economic survival. Brazil and Indonesia, for example, are some of the heaviest indebted countries who count on their virgin forests for the production of new goods that would earn their nation’s payments to world banks. The deforestation rates of these countries have increased by 82 percent and 245 percent respectively since the 1970s. (p. 89)            The rampant increase of deforestation, without the allotment for planting new trees to replace the old ones, carry great implications in the upset of the natural ecological balance of the earth.            Economic Policies. Governments of different countries have been so focused on getting their numbers right for their Gross National Products but have disregarded the usurpation of natural resources. Many international organizations have convened to help the growth of the underdeveloped or Third World Countries but have consistently ignored the possible consequences of their agreements to the earth itself.            According to a study made by Julius Kenneth Ningu (2006) and his colleagues regarding the effect of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)co, the economic agreements made had a negative effect on the country’s environment.            The research analyzed the activities that happened from 1994 to 2004 since the NAFTA was agreed upon. Before NAFTA, 70 percent of imports were tax free and did not result to an increase in the destruction of the environment. In fact, Mexico established monitoring programs for pollution and had environmental policies being strictly followed. However, the NAFTA forced Mexico into an economic crisis and by the end of the first year, the country’s government had to relax its environmental policies by almost 45 percent. By the year 2002, â€Å"In 2002, the costs of environmental degradation and natural resources depletion amounted to 65,934 million dollars †¦ the expenses made in the same year for protection and reduction of environmental damage generated by production activities reached an amount of 3,473 million dollars.† This means that only 53 percent was recovered from the depletion of the natural resources used. The bulk of the environmental degradation was generated by air pollution due to the industrial factors and automobile emissions which accounted for 79.5 percent but 2.4 percent was alluded to the problem of forest denudation because of the need for timber products. (p. 7) Taxes have been instituted for protection of the environment. However, the damage being done is excessive compared to the gains and the government is hesitant to improve these conditions due to the problem of the economy.            Robert Suzuki, a staunch environmentalist, criticizes the point of view of economists with the disregard for the environment. According to his book, The Suzuki Reader (2003), economists continue to ignore the problems that their policies are making for the environment in lieu of monetary gains. â€Å"†¦global economics is ultimately destructive because it is fatally flawed: it externalizes the natural capital and services that keep us alive while glorifying human inventiveness as if it allows us to escape finite limits and manage our biophysical surroundings; it assumes that endless growth is possible and necessary and represents progress; it does not value long-term social and ecological sustainability; it rejects caring, cooperation, and sharing as irrational while promoting selfishness; and it cannot incorporate the reality of spiritual needs.†(p. 93)            The need for global economists to unite with environmentalists is great if global warming is to be averted or slowed down. Many studies have already been made to point out that economics plays a major role in the activities of mankind that directly affect the destruction of the environment which causes changes in the earth’s climate.            Lack of Education. One of the worst problems that is wreaking havoc on the environment is lack of education. Although many studies have already been made to note that many of human activities are endangering every one’s survival on the planet, many people are still unaware that the lifestyle being promoted by capitalism does so. Most of the educational information being propagated in schools are related to pollution but the increased demand for progress ultimately sets these principles aside. Conclusion            Man’s own industrial progress is making the earth a terrible place to live in – whether these are causing global warming or not. The activities being made in the name of economics is feeding on the natural warming of the earth. Some may say that orbital alignments of the earth, moon and sun give rise to the eventual thawing of the arctic tundra. However, the increased release of methane and carbon dioxides due to pollution is aggravating it. This problem would not have been so serious if man were disciplined enough to put ecological balance upright by replacing the natural resources that has been continually depleted for his need for progress. Global warming is already existent even when scientists debate on its causes. Natural causes are unavoidable and will continue to exist even if man tries to stop them. However, man-made causes are totally in human control. Air pollution and denudation of forests are increasingly adding to the number of problems that global warming is not even part of. Sicknesses like lung cancer and chronic coughs are caused by air pollution. Denudation of forests lead to the deaths of many people because of the landslides and flashfloods it causes. Pestilence and the accompanying illnesses that are produced by it are also because of the rampant deforestation that many governments are ignorantly encouraging for national development.            The issue of global warming is only one among the basic problems that man has to resolve due to undisciplined acts of torturing the environment. Aggravating natural causes to the warming of the earth is still a major reason for concern and capitalism will never be a good excuse for destroying the only planet humans and the other 30 million creatures can live on.  References Broswimmer, F.J. (2002). â€Å"Ecocide and Globalization.†Ecocide: A Short History of the Mass  Extinction of Species. London: Pluto. Gore, A. (2006). The Shadow Our Future Throws. New York: Rodale. Pp. 36 – 55. Natural Resources Defense Council. (2007). Issues: Global Warming. Retrieved March 3, 2008,            from http://www.nrdc.org/globalWarming/f101.asp Ningu, J.K., Jacome, J.T., Silva Gomez, S.E. and Aviles, R.P. (2006). The Effects of North            America Free Trade Agreement on Mexican Environmental Policy (1994-2004).            American Journal of Environmental Sciences Vol. 2(1). Pp. 5-8. Praire, Y.T. and Duarte, C.M. (2007). Direct and Indirect Metabolic CO2 Release by Humanity.            Biogeosciences, Vol. 4, pp. 215 – 217. Scheffelin, T. (2007). Global Warming Causes Carbon Dioxide – Erroneous Scientific            Consensus Stifles Progress. Design News. Retrieved March 3, 2008, from            http://www.designnews.com/article/CA6493634.html Suhadi, D.R. Awang, M., Hassan, M.N., Abdullah, R. and Muda, A.H. (2005). Review of            Photochemical Smog Pollution in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia. American Journal of            Environmental Sciences, 1(2), p. 110 – 118. Suzuki, D. (2003). Hubris of Global Economics, Economics and Politics. The Suzuki Reader.            Vancouver:Greystone. Tillery, B. (2007). Physical Science. New York: McGraw-Hill. Annotated Bibliography Broswimmer, F.J. (2002). â€Å"Ecocide and Globalization.†Ecocide: A Short History of the Mass  Extinction of Species. London: Pluto. The book is about how global economy is actually hastening the depletion of the earth’s natural resources. The author believes that a thriving global economy is not the most important thing that should concern mankind. It is the opinion of the writer that the environment should be the priority because it is our primary source for survival. Gore, A. (2006). The Shadow Our Future Throws. New York: Rodale. Pp. 36 – 55. This book is about how mankind’s activities are affecting the environment. It uses specific examples experienced by the author to show the importance of ecological balance. It also gives theories like the â€Å"feedback†loop to show how each activity (man-made or natural) has interrelated effects on life and habitat. Natural Resources Defense Council. (2007). Issues: Global Warming. Retrieved March 3, 2008,            from http://www.nrdc.org/globalWarming/f101.asp The article is meant to make people understand the basic information about global warming. It includes statistics and explanations on the causes and effects of global warming. It also ventures to suggest that the U.S. government has the ability to impose change on the world when it comes to ecological concerns because it is the top-most contributor to the damage of the habitat. Ningu, J.K., Jacome, J.T., Silva Gomez, S.E. and Aviles, R.P. (2006). The Effects of North            America Free Trade Agreement on Mexican Environmental Policy (1994-2004).            American Journal of Environmental Sciences Vol. 2(1). Pp. 5-8. This research is about the negative effects of Mexico’s economic policies on the environment. It sought to discover how much damage has been caused in lieu of progress. The research criticized that the Mexican government has to double its initiative in caring for the environment but is constrained by the need to uphold economic principles. Praire, Y.T. and Duarte, C.M. (2007). Direct and Indirect Metabolic CO2 Release by Humanity.            Biogeosciences, Vol. 4, pp. 215 – 217. This research tried to analyze the difference between the natural carbon dioxide emissions of humans and animals in the pre-industrial era to the current situation. The researchers made use of recognized international organizational statistics to show the difference. Scheffelin, T. (2007). Global Warming Causes Carbon Dioxide – Erroneous Scientific            Consensus Stifles Progress. Design News. Retrieved March 3, 2008, from            http://www.designnews.com/article/CA6493634.html This article is made to show how environmentalists and scientists are creating panic over a natural phenomenon such as global warming. The article reveals studies made by other scientists who believe that the earth is merely undergoing a climate cycle that has been in place due to natural causes. The article sought to contradict other scientists and criticized that people are being made to panic when there is nothing that can be done anyway. Suhadi, D.R. Awang, M., Hassan, M.N., Abdullah, R. and Muda, A.H. (2005). Review of            Photochemical Smog Pollution in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia. American Journal of            Environmental Sciences, 1(2), p. 110 – 118. The research is about how ground-ozone is created in Jakarta and its effect on smog pollution levels. The research shows that the major contributor for smog pollution is the automobile use. It also showed that weather or climate conditions can intensify the rate of smog pollution. Suzuki, D. (2003). Hubris of Global Economics, Economics and Politics. The Suzuki Reader.            Vancouver:Greystone. This book is a compilation of many articles written by the author regarding the effect of global economy and politics on the environment. It cites many instances wherein the government policies for economic progress have harmed man’s habitat. It also seeks to find economists who should help in the environmental cause because the author believes that the economy is actually based on its natural resources that could be depleted if not taken care of properly.
Sunday, September 29, 2019
Asian Cuisine
Like many other global cuisines, Asian cuisine is as varied as the countries on the continent. Asian cuisine is very much a part of the culture and history of the Asian countries but there are some food commonalities between the various cultures. In Asian cooking, the emphasis is on smaller portions, smaller amounts of meats and plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables. Unlike the Asian-hybrid cooking that can be found elsewhere, traditional Asian food preparation involves very little fat, and very rarely is anything deep fried. While there are few commonalities binding Asian cuisine, there are many more differences that are based primarily on location. East Asian cuisine encompasses Chinese and Japanese cuisines as well as cuisines from Taiwan and Korea. Chinese cuisine is perhaps most famous for its Peking Duck as well as the myriad dumplings, steamed buns and stir-frys that are staples of Chinese cooking. Be sure to try different styles of Chinese cuisine such as Cantonese or Shandong. Chinese usually eat congee porridge for breakfast. China is also renowned for its many varieties of tea; this ancient beverage has been enjoyed for thousands of years in China. Japanese cuisine focuses on the freshness of ingredients and foods that are prepared more simply but with great finesse. Theirs is a very healthy cuisine, and they are known for eating myriad varieties of fresh fish. A must see market for foodies and culinary travelers in Japan, is the Tsukiji Market which is the world’s largest fish market. Have some sushi for breakfast, while watching all the hustle of the market. South Asian cuisine is also known as Desi cuisine and includes the exotic flavors of India. India has plenty of restaurants but the street food culture remains ever popular. This no frills kind of eating is particularly popular in Delhi. Also popular on a more global scale is Thai food. Pad Thai is universally recognized as the national dish of Thailand, and makong is a kind of Thai whiskey that has become much more affordable since the government started taxing beer and thus much more popular. Makong is the primary ingredient in Thailand’s welcome drink, the Sabai Sabai. The island nation of Laos has laap as its national dish but also popular is a salad called tam mak houng, made from green papayas. In the capital city of Vientiane, Laos you can drink a Beerlau at Sala Sunset Khounta boat on the banks of the Mekong while watching the sunset. The Philippines is well known for the adobo cooking style which is a preparation of chicken or pork that is braised slowly in vinegar, garlic, oil and soy sauce until very tender and nearly dry. In Vietnam, pho is of course the national specialty. Bali Indonesia’s national dish is nasi goreng and in Cambodia one can find amok, a dish of curried and steamed fish, as the national dish. On the islands of Java, or Sumatra, see if you can drink the rarest and most expensive coffee in the world, called Kopi Luwak, it’s made from coffee berries that have passed through the digestive system of Indonesian monkeys (also known as a Palm Toddy Cat). Southwestern Asian cuisine begins to borrow flavors and ingredients typically indigenous to countries in the Middle East, though they retain the focus on freshly prepared and simple dishes that are nutritious and packed with flavor. Asian cuisine is exotic and flavorful. The clever use of cooking techniques and spices has transformed what were originally humble peasant food dishes into specialties that are now known the world over. Conversely, with many Asian countries having a separate cuisine for the historical ruling King or Royal Family, the dichotomy between humble and royal food has lessened and dishes that were once only served to royalty can now be found in any common Thai restaurant. Nonetheless, traveling through Asia takes you on a tour not only of wildly exotic countries but of foods that are distinctly different from country to country.
Saturday, September 28, 2019
Business Ethics in Bangladesh Essay Example for Free
Business Ethics in Bangladesh Essay Morality (706) , Business ethics (133) Social responsibility requires individuals engaging in business endeavors to behave in an ethical manner. Ethics are principles of behavior that distinguish between right and wrong. Ethical conduct conforms to what a group or society as a whole considers right behavior. People working in business frequently face ethical questions. Business ethics is the evaluation of business activities and behavior as right or wrong. Ethical standards in business are based on commonly accepted principles of behavior established by the expectations of society, the firm, the industry, and an individual’s personal values. Critically, â€Å"Business Ethics†can be defined as the critical, structured examination of how people & institutions should behave in the world of commerce. In particular, it involves examining appropriate constraints on the pursuit of self-interest, or (for firms) profits, when the actions of individuals or firms affects others. (9) With unethical business practices often receiving publicity, the public sometimes believe that people in business are less ethical than others in society. But ethical problems challenge all segments of our society, including government, churches, and higher education. Most business leaders realize their firms cannot succeed without the trust of customers and the goodwill of society. A violation of ethics makes trust and goodwill difficult to maintain. In thousands of companies, executives and employees act according to the highest ethical standards. Unfortunately managers in some firms behave unethically, and these instances are often highly publicized. Personnel executive say the major reason managers behave unethically is to obtain power and money. Business ethics is a wider term that includes many other sub ethics that are relevant to the respective field. For example there is marketing ethics for marketing, ethics in HR for Human Resource Department and the like. Business ethics itself is a part of applied ethics; the latter takes care of ethical questions in the technical, social, legal and business ethics. When we trace the origin of business ethics we start with a period where profit maximization was seen as the only purpose of existence for a business. There was no consideration whatsoever for non-economic values, be it the people who worked with organizations or the society that allowed the business to flourish. It was only in late 1980’s and 1990’s that both intelligentsia and the academics as well as the corporate began to show interest in the same. Nowadays almost all organizations lay due emphasis on their responsibilities towards the society and the nature and they call it by different names like corporate social responsibility, corporate governance or social responsibility charter. Primary and Important Sources of Business ethics Ethics in general refers to a system of good and bad, moral and immoral, fair and unfair. It is a code of conduct that is supposed to align behaviors within an organization and the social framework. But the question that remains is, where and when did business ethics come into being? Primarily ethics in business is affected by the following sources – family, religion, culture, legal system, codes of conduct, and personal experience. It is for this reason we do not have uniform or completely similar standards across the globe. These factors exert influences to varying degrees on humans which ultimately get reflected in the ethics of the organization. For example, ethics followed by Grameen Phone Ltd. are different from those followed by Square Group or Unilever for that matter. Again ethical procedures vary across geographic boundaries. A person’s values is the source of their ethics, and it is their philosophy, spiritual or religious beliefs that usually help mold and shape those values, but most of all it is how a person is raised by his family that sets the foundation for his ethics in later life. It’s the basic source of business ethics. It is one of the oldest foundations of ethical standards. Religion wields varying influences across various sects of people. It is believed that ethics is a manifestation of the divine and so it draws a line between the good and the bad in the society. Depending upon the degree of religious influence we have different sects of people; we have sects, those who are referred to as orthodox or fundamentalists and those who are called as moderates. Needless to mention, religion exerts itself to a greater degree among the orthodox and to lesser extent in case of moderates. Fundamentally however all the religions operate on the principle of reciprocity towards ones fellow beings! Culture is a pattern of behaviors and values that are transferred from one generation to another, those that are considered as ideal or within the acceptable limits. No wonder therefore that it is the culture that predominantly determines what is wrong and what is right. It is the culture that defines certain behavior as acceptable and others as unacceptable. Human civilization is fact has passed through various cultures, wherein the moral code was redrafted depending upon the epoch that was. What was immortal or unacceptable in certain culture became acceptable later on and vice versa. During the early years of human development where ones who were the strongest were the ones who survived! Violence, hostility and ferocity were thus the acceptable. Approximately 10,000 year ago when human civilization entered the settlement phase, hard work, patience and peace were seen as virtues and the earlier ones were considered otherwise. These values are still in practice by the managers of to day. Still further, when human civilization witnessed the industrial revolution, the ethics of agrarian economy was replaced by the law pertaining to technology, property rights etc. Ever since a tussle has ensued between the values of the agrarian and the industrial economy! Laws are procedures and code of conduct that are laid down by the legal system of the state. They are meant to guide human behavior within the social fabric. The major problem with the law is that all the ethical expectations cannot be covered by the law and specially with ever changing outer environment the law and specially with ever changing outer environment the law keeps on changing but often fails to keep pace. In business, complying with the rule of law is taken as ethical behavior, but organizations often break laws by evading taxes, compromising on quality, service norms etc. A business code of ethics is a series of established principles an organization uses when operating in business or society. Organizations often develop these codes to ensure that all individuals working in the company operate according to the same standards. Most individuals have an internal code of ethics or moral principles they follow in life. A situation one individual finds ethically reprehensible may not seem so to another individual. Using a code of ethics in business attempts to create a basic understanding of acceptable ethical behavior to be used when handling situations involving the company, government agencies and the general public. If an individual is rewarded or is not punished for behaving unethically, the behavior will probably be repeated. This type of experience encourages other to do unethical things in future. Likewise the threat of punishment and the lack of reward for unethical activities encourage that particular person and all others to behave ethically. Factors Influencing Ethical Behavior To encourage ethical behavior, executives, managers, and owners of firms must understand what influences behavior in the first place. The several factors that affect individuals’ behavior in business: the business environment, organizational factors, and an individual’s personal moral philosophy. Almost daily, business managers face ethical dilemmas resulting from the pressure of the business environment. They are challenged to meet sales quotas, cut costs, increase efficiency, or overtake competitors. Managers and employees may sometimes think the only way to survive in the competitive world of business is by deception or cheating. In some instances, an organization may use someone else’s successful work without the permission of the owner or originator. Conflict of interest is another common ethical problem stemming from the business environment. Often an individual has a chance to further selfish interests rather than the interests of the organization or society. To gain favor with people who make purchasing decisions for their companies, a seller may offer special favors or gifts, ranging from a metal to clothing to trips. Some offer cash-a kickback-for putting through a contract or placing orders with a company. Others offer bribes. Such illegal conduct will damage the organization in the long run. In order to limit unethical behavior, business firms must begin by expecting their employees to obey all laws and regulations. The international business environment presents further ethical dilemmas. Business people and government officials in different countries and cultures often operate according to different ethical standards. The organization itself also influences ethical behavior. Individuals often learn ethical or unethical behaviors by interacting with others in the organization. An employee who sees a superior or co-worker behaving unethically may follow suit. An organization can also use rewards to influence the behavior of its members. If an individual is rewarded or is not punished for behaving unethically, the behavior will probably be repeated. Likewise the threat of punishment and the lack of reward for unethical activities encourage ethical behavior. The severity of punishment also sends a message to other individuals who might be considering similar activities. A person’s own moral philosophy also influences his or her ethical behavior. A moral philosophy is the set of principles that dictate acceptable behavior. These principles are learned from family, friends, co-workers, and other social groups and through formal education. In developing a moral philosophy, individuals can follow two approaches: The Humanistic Philosophy focuses on individual rights and values. Individuals and organizations adopting this philosophy would honor their moral duties to customers and workers. Individuals and organizations following the Utilitarian Philosophy seek the greatest good for the largest number of people. Most of us would agree that it is ethics in practice that makes sense; just having it carefully drafted and redrafted in books may not serve the purpose. Of course all of us want to be fair, clean and beneficial to the society. For that to happen, organizations need to abide by ethics or rule of law, engage themselves in fair practices and competition; all of which will benefit the consumer, the society and organization. Primarily it is the individual, the consumer, the employee or the human social unit of the society who benefits from ethics. In addition ethics is important because of the following: 1. Satisfying Basic Human Needs: Being fair, honest and ethical is one of the basic human needs. Every employee desires to be such himself and to work for an organization that is fair and ethical in its practices. 2. Creating Credibility: An organization that is believed to be driven by moral values is respected in the society even by those who may have no information about the working and businesses of that organization. British American Tobacco, for example is perceived as an organization for good corporate governance and social responsibility initiatives. This perception is held far and wide even by those who do not even know what business the organization is into. 3. Uniting People and Leadership: An organization driven by values is revered by its employees also. They are the common thread that brings the employees and the decision makers on a common platform. This goes a long way in aligning behaviors within the organization towards achievement of one common goal or mission. 4. Improving Decision Making: A man’s destiny is the sum totals of all the decisions that he/she takes in course of his life. The same holds true for organizations. Decisions are driven by values. For example, an organization that does not value competition will be fierce in its operations aiming to wipe out its competitors and establish a monopoly in the market. 5. Long Term gains: Organizations guided by ethics and values are profitable in the long run, though in the short run they may seem to lose money. For Example, Tata group, one of the largest business conglomerates in India was seen on the verge of decline at the beginning of 1990’s, which soon turned out to be otherwise. The same company’s Tata NANO car was predicted as a failure, and failed to do well but the same is picking up fast now. 6. Securing the Society: Often ethics succeeds law in safeguarding the society. The law machinery is often found acting as a mute spectator, unable to save the society and the environment. Technology, for example is growing at such a fast pace that the by the time law comes up with a regulation we have a newer technology with new threats replacing the older one. Lawyers and public interest litigations may not help a great deal but ethics can. Business Ethics- Practice in Bangladesh In Bangladesh, though practice of Business ethics is still not so commendable in public sector and small companies, but business ethics has been an increasing concern among larger companies, at least since the 1990s. Major corporations increasingly fear the damage to their image associated with press revelations of unethical practices. The following information about the functions relating ethics and social responsibility of 2 reputed companies of our country will give a brief idea about the practice of Business Ethics in Bangladesh. Advanced Chemical Industries (ACI) Limited is one of the leading conglomerates in Bangladesh, with a multinational heritage. They have a mission to achieve business excellence through quality by understanding, accepting, meeting and exceeding customer expectations. They follow International Standards on Quality Management System to ensure consistent quality of products and services to achieve customer satisfaction. They are focusing on improving the food habit of consumers through providing more ready to cook products and ready to eat as well. Their visions are to establish harmonious relationship with the community and promote greater environmental responsibility within its sphere of influence. Their Values are Quality, Customer Focus, Fairness, Transparency, Continuous Improvement, and Innovation. Societal Development through Educational Programs: ACI’s guiding principle in all its operations is to be a responsible corporate citizen. Thus Social Responsibility is a top priority for every individual at ACI. Their Initiatives and significant contribution to societal development is Continued Medical Education (CME) for medical professionals and Children’s Education Programs. ACI has also undertaken an English Education program in Faridpur, one of the remotest districts of Bangladesh. This provides support to teach English Language to school going children. Doctors in Bangladesh who are not living in the metropolitan cities have very limited access to the Internet or any other sources of information. In order to keep them updated on the developments in the medical practices regularly, the CME program has been proven highly effective. ACI believes that by promoting education of children, they are contributing to societal development by shaping the minds of their futur e leaders. Environment Friendly Practices: ACI has undertaken extensive programs to educate crop farmers all over rural Bangladesh in Good Agricultural Practices. They have a team of agricultural experts working at the field level all across the country, holding a range of technical trainings and field demonstrations. ACI also has similar education programs for animal and poultry farmers. These include, Technical trainings on diverse aspects of farming, and on application of new technologies, Farmers‘ group meeting for sharing of learning and experience, Free visits to farms by veterinarians, to identify problems and give advices to individual farmers. Most importantly, making the farmers aware of ways to protect the environment from hazardous uses of chemicals on their farms, allowing them the opportunity for informed decision-making. ACI hopes to continue to play a leading role in promoting greater environmental responsibility among farmers in Bangladesh. ACI Company produces some products which do not work properly, like ACI Aerosol. It is mainly produced for killing mosquitoes, but that’s not true. Most of the mosquitoes go away for sometimes but not killed. Sometimes some products like ACI Atta, ACI Maida, etc contains 1975 grams instead of 2000 grams but they fix their prices for 2kg of the products. These are unethical for their marketing practices. Over the last four decades, Unilever Bangladesh has been constantly bringing new and world class products for the Bangladeshi people to remove the daily drudgery of life. Over 90% of the country’s households use one or more of Unilever products. They aim to give everybody a little something to celebrate about themselves every day. They believe that to succeed in business, it is essential to maintain the highest standards of corporate behavior towards everyone they work with, the communities they touch, and the environment on which they have an impact. Effective Code of business principles: Their code of business principles describes the operational standards that everyone at Unilever follows, wherever they are in the world. It also supports their approach to governance and corporate responsibility. Code of business principles are- Standard of conduct, Obey the law, employees, consumers, shareholders, business partners, community involvement, public activities, the environment, innovation, competition, business integrity, conflict of interest, compliance, reporting, monitor. Women Development and Women Empowerment: Unilever strongly believes in the importance of empowering women in Bangladesh, because the progress of any society will be constrained if a significant part of its population is neglected and excluded from the benefits of development. They believe, with economic and educational empowerment, women can become more vocal about their rights and become stronger in withstanding repression in any form. So they have established â€Å"Fair & Lovely Foundation†. The mission of this foundation is to encourage economic empowerment of Bangladeshi women through information and resources in the areas of Education, Career and Enterprise. It is this realization that has brought about the Fair & Lovely Foundation Scholarship Program. Under this scholarship scheme, women who have passed their HSC each receives a Taka 25,000 scholarship to support her tertiary level education. Unilever produces Fair & lovely fairness cream, lotion, etc and they claim that skin color will be white after using this product. But that it is not true. There are no scientific values about whiteness. This is totally unethical performance in marketing activities of this company. Comparative Customer Evaluation on Ethical Performances of 3 Reputed Companies of Bangladesh Figure – Customer Response on Maintenance of Ethical Procedure by the Companies (1) Figure – Customer Response on Deceptive Practices Used by the Companies (1) Figure – Customer Response on Significant Contribution toward Ethical Marketing (1) Figure – Customer Response on Satisfaction through Using Products of the Companies (1) Figure – Customer Response on Changing of Defective Products by the Companies (1) Bribery & Nepotism- A Curse against Ethical Practice Corruption is a very strong example of unethical behavior and it is still prevailing in different business sectors of our country in the form of Bribery and Nepotism. Nepotism is the way in which someone approaches and compels a person of power and authority to take necessary steps to get his work done by capitalizing kinship, friendship or political lobbying. Bribery means offering gifts, money etc. to get a work done in unethical way. Often public officers are infamously alleged for taking bribes to award public contracts using their power. Bribery and Nepotism also exist in the corporate world, which is very harmful for ethical practices and creates hindrances in building proper and ethical business environment. Managing or Encouraging Ethical Behavior Managing the financial operations of a company can be a complex effort. Companies need to balance their desire to grow with the realities of maintaining their financial relationships, satisfying their investors and making a profit. Government Regulations: The government can do so by legislating more stringent regulations. But, rules require enforcement and when in many cases there is evidence of lack of enforcement even the ethical business person will tend to â€Å"slip something by†without getting caught. Increased regulation may help, but it surely cannot solve the entire business ethics problems. Trade Associations Setting Guidelines: Trade associations can and often do provide ethical guidelines for their members. These organizations within particular industries are in an excellent position to exert pressures on members that stoop to questionable business practices. Companies Providing Code of Ethics: Employees can more easily determine and adopt acceptable behavior when companies provide them with a â€Å"code of ethics.†Such codes are perhaps the most effective way to encourage ethical behavior. A code of ethics is a written guide to acceptable and ethical behavior that outlines uniform policies, standards and punishments for violations. Because employees know what is expected of them and what will happen if they violate the rules, a code of ethics goes a long way towards encouraging ethical behavior. However, codes cannot possibly cover every situation. Companies must also create an environment in which employees recognize the importance of complying with the written code. Managers must provide direction by fostering communication, actively modeling and encouraging ethical decision making, apart from investing in training employees to make ethical decisions. Whistle Blowing Technique: Sometimes, even employees who want to act ethically may find it difficult to do so. Unethical practices can become ingrained in an organization. Employees with high personal ethics may then take a controversial step called â€Å"whistle blowing.†Whistle blowing is informing the press or government officials about unethical practices in an organization. Whistle blowing could have averted disaster and prevented needless deaths in the Challenger space shuttle disaster, for example. How could employees have known about life-threatening problems and let them pass? Whistle blowing on the other hand, can have serious repercussions for employees; those who make waves sometimes lose their jobs. The main objective of business is to serve people with their every need for the well-being of human being and to ensure that, there is no alternative of following business ethics. Since the practice of business ethics in our country is still not ubiquitous, we are not getting the proper environment for the business, and thus often we are facing some crisis situation and it is hampering our total economic development. Our policy makers and the top executives of the organizations should give more concern in making ethical policies and take proper steps to encourage business executives and service holders to follow them. 1) â€Å"Ethics In Marketing On Bangladesh Perspective: Study on Few Companies of Bangladesh†- collected from â€Å"World Journal of Management Volume 2. Number 2. September 2010†, the direct link- http://wbiaus.org/10.%20Tajmeela-FINAL.pdf 2) â€Å"Business for the 21st Century†- Skinner & Ivancevich 3) â€Å"An Integrated Approach to Business Studies†(4th edition)- Bruce R Jewell 4) â€Å"Business Studies†(4th edition)- Dave Hall-Rob Jones-Carlo Raffo- Alain Anderton 8) www.sagepub.com/upm-data/10923_Chapter1.pdf 9) www.businessethics.ca/definitions/business-ethics.html Business Ethics in Bangladesh. (2016, Apr 12). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you
Friday, September 27, 2019
Risk assessment for a de novo company in a developing country Essay
Risk assessment for a de novo company in a developing country - Essay Example This report stresses that auto parts are a two-edged sword in China. The world auto parts industry has discovered that, for those parts that have a medium- to high labor cost component, China is an endless supply of inexperienced and relatively skilled labor that can produce their parts. If our joint venture establishes itself, there may be several competitors who follow in quickly behind us. There are no barriers to entry. Franchise value would allow our company to charge a premium over generic auto parts suppliers for the perceived quality of our products. This is our guarantee that foreign and domestic Chinese automobile manufacturers would like to use our product in preference to a commodity-type supplier. There is a danger of copying in China, which is greater than other parts of the world. As in developing countries such as India, copyright laws and enforcement are relatively weak. If an erstwhile competitor would like to copy our product, and even put our name on that product, it may take some time before we would be successful in closing down that company’s copycat products. This paper makes a conclusion that the audit function is not simply an â€Å"after-the-fact†exercise. The company needs to put policies and procedures in place which conform to SEC disclosure rules and US laws about foreign practices. The Board should create a separate China subcommittee, and review on a regular (perhaps quarterly) basis the conformance to these requirements. In addition, the outside auditing firm can recommend additional ‘safety’ measures to insure that the JV complies.
Thursday, September 26, 2019
Computer Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Computer Crime - Essay Example They apply different techniques of payment like credit card, e-cheques, and shopper's card. Smart-cards and e-wallets are few techniques to protect customer's information and convenient and safe for transactions and processing of data. Privacy has also grown in stature similar to security concerns to keep the personal information of customer intact. Technology and outsourcing model of business has taken the pressure off from the management team to some extent. Encryption, VPN, Firewall, SSL and precautionary measure from customer is essential in keeping the security system in control (Ghosh, 2001). Customer follows the three mandatory steps for processing the transactions. He enters the details of credit card to the e-merchant or payment gateway that passes through secure socket layer (SSL) of server and digital certificate of online service provider. Once validation in the initial layers of security check is complete, details provided by customer is processed by associated bank that handles the complex security information collected in the payment gateway. This collects the details of order and customer through e-business associate to finally approve the transaction. Authentication is first step in privacy matters that can ensure that right pers
Multinational Enterprises In Asian Development Case Study
Multinational Enterprises In Asian Development - Case Study Example The research will review the trends and expansionist strategies employed by multinational enterprises from these nations and evaluate how they managed to attain successes on the global level. Japanese Businesses The Japanese European Trade Organisation (JETRO) studied a number of things about the expansion if Japanese businesses into Europe (Sachwald, 1995). They identified five main motives for the expansion of Japanese businesses into Europe. First of all, Japanese businesses seeking to expand into Europe for production reasons. Geographically, Japan has not been a very rich island in terms of natural resources. As such, their expansionist drives into foreign nations included the desire to acquire much needed raw materials. Thus, the establishment of foreign companies enabled them to establish production systems with their technology and capital and produce at points close to the customers that they previously exported to. Secondly, the cost of energy and electricity has been tradi tionally high. Japanese expansionist ideology was to make use of cheap electricity and energy costs. Again, Japan has always been an overpopulated island. Due to that, land costs are generally higher. The expansion into foreign lands enabled Japanese businesses to economize and save significantly on rent. Other costs like pollution and transport costs were significantly lower in other parts of the world. Thus, Japanese businesses expanded to foreign lands to take advantage of these production-related advantages. Secondly, Japanese businesses moved to different parts of the world in order to develop new markets. In the 1970s, Japanese businesses had exported large volumes of products to people in different parts of the world.
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
What is the role of British cinema Critically examine the contemporary Essay
What is the role of British cinema Critically examine the contemporary British film industry with reference to ongoing debates about culture and commerce - Essay Example It is possible to explore these aspects when considering two films to be able to understand the role of the British film industry in the society. One of the major concerns of researchers and officials is the commercial value of the British film industry. It has been estimated that the UK film industry contributes over  £4bn to the British economy annually (Statistical year book 2014). This is achieved through international investment and production grossing. In the first place, it is necessary to note that many British filmmakers â€Å"have complained that there is no UK ‘industry’ as such†(Branston & Stafford 2006, p. 437). Clearly, Hollywood is seen as a well-established and even exemplary film industry as it has penetrated the world as well as the British market. Consumers all over the world prefer Hollywood products (James 2009). At the same time, it is clear that Britain has also become an attractive destination for various foreign (especially American) companies. For instance, the country attracted more than  £1bn in 2010 (Branston & Stafford 2006). This interest shows a great potential of the c ountry and its film industry. To facilitate development of the UK film industry, the government implemented quite dramatic changes in the 2010s. For instance, the UK Film Council that functioned as a body supporting the development of the industry ceased to exist and the British Film Institute (FBI) is now performing its functions (Higson 2010). Thus, the government has launched a policy that is aimed at increasing funding of the industry. These changes and increased attention to the industry are also associated with a desire to contribute to development and promotion of the British culture. This is also regarded as a way to protect the country from globalisation and preserve its rich cultural heritage (Higson 2010). Of course, it is difficult to trace the line between commerce and culture especially when it comes to cinematography. Some argue
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
A Tricky Problem of Stagflation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
A Tricky Problem of Stagflation - Assignment Example It was pathbreaking in several ways, in particular, because it introduced the notion of aggregate demand as the sum of consumption, investment, and government spending; and because it showed (or purported to show) that full employment could be maintained only with the help of government spending (Library of Economics and Liberty 2008.) By 1965, there was a backlash against Keynesian economic thought. â€Å"In 1965 Scott Gordon declared that, in Canada, throughout the 1940’s and 1950’s ‘Keynesian statements were confined to the abstract planes of discourse; they were not connected with actual policy’†(Neill 180). However, Gordon did not take into account that Keynesian economics assumed a closed, and mature economic system, and the Canadian economic climate at the time was open and small (Neill 173) Gordon was not alone, however, many economists shared his views, and this was the downturn of the popularity of Keynesian economics. NAFTA, or the North American Free Trade Agreement, opened up trade between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Because of NAFTA, there are no longer any tariffs or trade restrictions between these countries. There is no question that the United States is economically the strongest of these nations, however, there are benefits to all of the countries involved. â€Å"Both Mexico and Canada see NAFTA as a way of securing access to the U.S. market and the trade benefits cannot be of the greatest significance for the United States, the United States looks at Canada and Mexico in terms of industrial and commercial location as much as trade†(Hoebing, Weintraub, and Baer 108). Those who oppose NAFTA argue that NAFTA should have environmental standards and minimum wages. This is because of the shift of work moving to Mexico from the United States, there are less environmental regulations in Mexico, and workers can be paid less than they can in the United States. The quiet revolution took place in the 1960’s in a spirit of Quebec nationalism.  Â
Monday, September 23, 2019
Globalization as a Catalyst for Inaquality, Volatility and Division Essay
Globalization as a Catalyst for Inaquality, Volatility and Division - Essay Example Globalization is on the other hand blamed for the increase in the rich poor gap, environmental pollution and the threat to respect for human rights. The interconnectedness of the many countries of the world is multifaceted and multifarious. Some of the problems of globalization derive from economics while others do not. It is important to note though that whatever the cause of globalization, it has an impact on the reality of human life across the globe. Culture Clash Increasing globalization has led to the clash of many cultures across the globe which has proved to be detrimental in some instances. Trade agreements and international corporations are known to lead to a degradation of the environment, and diminish state sovereignty. The more developed countries have a culture of continuing growth which they wrongly assume the other countries have whereas they do not (Buckman, 2004:32). Many of the developing countries of the world contain an abundance of labor whereas the countries of the West have technological knowhow. An increase in globalization leads to multinationals spreading to developing countries. Since there is a large population in developing countries, demand for work is high which lead to increasing low wages and worker welfare. Globalization has led to the invention of technological inventions such as the internet and TV. These technological inventions are capable of eroding or destroying the culture of people. Since most of these technological inventions such as TV and radio are more oriented to Western lifestyles and culture, they would increase the instance of Western values and culture being adopted by other people around the globe at the expense of the erosion of their own local cultures. While popular opinion may not rate culture and identity very highly in terms of influencing economic conditions, a deeper study of culture shows the reverse is actually true. Globalization has led to the spread of Western economic systems wherein paid employ ment is becoming the norm all over the world. Some cultures especially in the developing world depended upon subsistence farming for their economic sustenance (Velmeyer, 2004: 76-87). Globalization has made many able bodied people to leave the farms and go to town to look for paid employment which has resulted to increasing cases of food shortages as a result of lack of Agricultural labor. Trade Liberalization Globalization has led to increase trade linearization and the removing of trade barriers. While trade linearization has been hailed as a good thing by economic experts, it presents some challenges which have resulted to feuds in the international community. Trade liberalization has been seen by many in the developing world as increasing poverty and inequality in these countries rather than helping them attain economic independence and wealth. This has been compounded by the International bodies such as IMF and Worlds Bank. Most of the international bodies such as World Bank an d the WTO have been accused of only making rules that favor the most developed countries. A good example is the refusal by the developed rich countries of Europe and the USA to offer incentives to developing countries through preferential trade agreements preferring to give aid instead. International bodies have also been accused of interfering in the internal affairs of countries in which they offer financial aid. For instance the World Bank in 1990 froze aid to Kenya until the Kenya
Sunday, September 22, 2019
Reference to two South African examples Essay Example for Free
Reference to two South African examples Essay In at least one point in the day, every-one finds themselves tuned into one broadcast station or another, be it radio or television Be it for entertainment, relaxation, to be informed or merely a means of escapism. For whichever reasons it is, radio and television play an active role in our everyday life whether we are aware of it or not. Using South African examples, this assignment seeks to discuss two radio and two television genres. It is virtually impossible to discuss the issue genre before defining this term. Both the Oxford dictionary as well as Creeber (2001), defines genre as type or kind. Genres allow for the types or kinds of things to be categorised. For example in radio broadcasting, there are various different programs aired, such as talk shows, music shows, news broadcasts, drama shows and so on. Each of these shows are categorised into a particular genre based on their characteristics. The two radio genres that will be discussed are talk shows and music shows. The phenomenon of genre is not exclusive to radio and television alone. In fact according to Greeber, it [genre] has played an important role in the study of literature, theatre, film, television and other art and media forms (Creeber, G: 2001 pg. 1). Radio-Talk Genre Radio stations like SAFM and 702 are almost entirely dedicated to the genre of talk show however almost every radio station incorporates this genre if not at least for a few minutes. The success of talk shows lie in participation by the audience. The audience is urged to call into the radio station and either view their opinion on the topic of discussion or pose questions to either an officiator or a panel. On SAFM for example, there was a program entitled The Life and Times of Dr. Bayers Nordea. The show was as the title implies, discussing and talking about Dr. Nordeas life. The show hosted family, colleagues and friends, who spoke about his life. Listeners also got the opportunity to add their comments, thoughts, as well as pose questions to the panel. The show was also officiated by the host or disk jockey (D. J) of the show, who not only directed most of the discussion, but also made sure that the show, ran smoothly. The nature of talk shows is such that the audience phones in either agreeing or disagreeing to the topic or question being discussed. This opens the door for others to voice their opinions. According to Barnard (2000), phone-in encourages a free flow of opinion and conversation within the safety of an artificially created community (Barnard, S: 2000). With out this element, the talk show would be deemed unsuccessful. Talk shows do not follow a particular protocol, meaning that any topic can be addressed. The mere action of a D. J. posing a question relating to any topic and receiving feedback from the audience constitutes the genre of talk show to be exercised. As any topic makes way for talk shows, it is common to find small inserts of talk show, even within a primarily music radio station. Highfeld Stereo is an example of a South African music radio station. It is common to find a situation where a D. J. poses a question and opens the lines to receive feedback. The D. J is thus officiating a talk show, within a music show. Listeners of talk shows however, are required to concentrate on the discussion if they are to understand what is being discussed, thus ones attention cannot divert from one thing to another. For example, one cannot talk to a friend on the phone, as well as remain focused on the discussion. Radio-Music Genre. Although there is audience participation in the music genre, it differs from that of the talk genre. Regarding music radio, the audience is urged to call in to send dedications to friends or loved ones, choose songs they wish to hear, or vote for their favourite song rather than voice their opinions on a matter. Music as a genre is not so clear-cut like talk shows. Within the music genres, there are sub-genres, where by music is categorised according to style. Rock, rave, hip-hop and pop would all be examples of sub-genres of the music genre. The music genre requires less attention from the listener to be focused on the show. Namely, the listener can do various other activities without loosing out on the entertainment. For example, while driving a car and focusing on the road, or while working at ones desk, one can continue to listen to his or her favourite song and not be side tracked. Unlike the talk genre where if one was driving a car and focusing on the road they would more than likely loose track of what was being discussed-alternatively, they would possibly have an accident. As the genre implies, the emphasis in music shows is in fact music. Therefore it is common to find very little talking by the D. J. and more music being played. The show usually consists of popular songs in the specific sub-genre being aired. This genre also usually has a top 40 show, where the 40 most popular songs are aired. This is commonly known as contempory hit radio (Tomaselli/de Villiers: 1998). 5FM radio station for example has the Coca-Cola Top 40 music show which is aired every Sunday morning from 10:00- 14:00. Other radio stations like East Coast Radio host the Top 10 at 10 show, which airs the 10 most popular songs every Tuesday night at 22:00. These songs which make it onto the top 10 or top 40 lists, are songs which have been voted for by the public. Jacaranda FM in contrast to the mainstream radio stations of say 5FM for example would air music of a different sub-genre, however one would still find the most popular tracks of that specific sub-genre being aired, as well as top 10 shows occurring. In the music genre, the D. Js primary job is to play music and possible talk a little bit about the artist of the track, rather than being an officiator or a mediator of discussion, as is found in talk radio. Television-Documentary Genre. As the term documentary implies, these shows are usually fact based and require research to be done on the particular topic being showed. Events are documented by a team of researchers and aired to the public. An example of a documentary would be found in the SABC 2 show 50/50. This is a documentary program that focuses on various aspects of the wild life. Documentaries however could focus on a variety of topics, including an event, person or idea. As the emphasis of documentaries is on information, enlightenment and facts, viewers usually watch documentaries as a means of being informed, rather than being entertained. The nature of documentaries is such that each episode is fully formed and has a definite conclusion even if left as an enquiry for the viewer to think about what they have just viewed. This allows the viewer to evaluate their knowledge of the topic against that of the show. Documentaries are also not usually serial form, as would be the case in a sitcom for example. Rather, they tend to be self-contained episodes with definite endings. Documentaries usually also adopt a narrative structure psychological relationship of the viewers to the program. The viewer is often addressed directly, in order to persuade the actual person watching at home that he or she is the you to whom the addresser is speaking (Allen,C: 1992 pg. 118). This also keeps the viewer interested in the show as well making them feel as if they actively involved in what is going on. Due to the fact that documentaries are not entertainment focused and are rather a means of transferring information, events, people or animals being documented are portrayed as realistically as possible. Animals, which are filmed in the 50/50 program, for example are filmed in their natural environments, rather than in zoos, in order to give the viewer the most realistic experience. As they are based on real occurrences, documentaries, unlike entertainment programmes such as sitcoms, do not focus as much on a specific plot. Television-Soap Opera As soap operas were originally targeted at the female audience (Brown, M: 1994), it is not surprising to find that many of the central characters within this genre are women. More importantly, they are strong, powerful and influential characters, rather than the stereotype housewife women. SABC 3 airs the soap opera Isidingo. Charel de Villiers and Leigh Haynes are two examples of strong, powerful and ambitious characters that play central roles in the show. It is important for these kinds of characters to exist, in order for the audience to which the show is targeted at to be able to relate. They [women] recognise some of there own identity in this product created by the media (Brown, M: 1994). People watch soap operas for a number of reasons. The fact that they are entertaining, allows the viewer to unwind, relax or escape from the stresses from every day life, for the duration of the show, as the audience get lost in the reality of the program (Anderson, M: 2004). Viewers could also be using the decision-making techniques and outcomes of the soap opera to work through their own issues (Anderson, M: 2004). Isidingo is an example of a program that deals with AIDS-an issue that the whole of South Africa is facing; it also provides solutions in the form of Nandipe-a married women infected with HIV. Her positive attitude allows her to live a productive life. Viewers may see Nandipe as a role model. Those viewers infected with HIV may in fact even echo her actions in order to try and increase productivity in their own lives. Characters in soap operas are usually found in the form of multiple characters (Brown, M: 1994) meaning that characters emphasize the group over the individual (Brown, M: 1994 pg 53), thus many people can relate to one specific character. This also makes way for viewers to find similarities between themselves and various other characters rather than one particular character. Brown believes that rather than relating to characters in soap operas, viewers implicate themselves to various characters, meaning that the viewer will see similarities between a particular character, or even characters, but when the character acts in a way that the viewer does not agree with, or feel comfortable with, the viewer will distance him or herself from the character (Brown, M: 1994). Soap operas adopt a visualization style, which gets the viewer to focus and identify with a specific character (Brown, M: 1994 pg. 53). On a radio talk show for example, a TV viewer called in with the opinion that the Isidingo villianess, Cherel de Villiers should be punished, as if the viewer could not differentiate between reality fiction. (Anderson, M: 2004). Apparently actors who play villainous characters are shunned offset by the public (Anderson, M: 2004). It is not only the relatable characters and entertaining style of soap operas that keep the audience hooked. It is also the continuous open-ended nature of episodes, set in the present and containing a number of alternating story lines which gives the audience sense of continuous pleasure (Brown, M: 1994, pg. 58). The fact that soap operas resists narrative closure, meaning that the story is continuous and never ending, means there is always hope for the future (Anderson, M: 2004). Thus viewers will continue to watch future episodes in order to come closer to seeing what will happen at the end (which never really comes). John Davies (1984) suggests about soap opera viewers that once hooked, they vacillate between their need to know, or the pleasure of anticipation that keeps viewers watching (Brown, M: 1994). In discussing two radio and two television genres with reference to two South African examples, it is evident that the complexities and intricacies of various broadcasts and genres are not as simple as one would imagine. As seen above, various genres and broadcasts draw in different audiences, and evoke various different responses in the viewer or listener. As technology continues to move forward, where will these broadcasts find themselves in the future? For now though, radio and television will continue to play an active part in almost all of our lives. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, Robert C. 1992. Televisions modes of address the social context of T. V. viewing. In Channels of Discourse, reassembled. 2nd ed. Edited by Robert C. Allen. London: Routledge. Anderson, Muff. Soapies mirror SAs soul. Mail Guardian. 24 March 2004. Barnard, S. 2000. Studying Radio. New York: Arnold Hodder. Brown, Mary Ellen. 1994. Ch. 3: Soap opera and womens talk: The pleasure of resistance. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Creeber, G. (ed. ). 2001. Introduction: What is genre? In Creeber, G (ed),The television genre book. London: British Film Institute, 1-7. Teer-Tomaselli, R and de Villiers, C. 1998. Radio: Theatre of the Mind. In De Beer, A (ed). Mass media toward the Millennium. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 147-175.
Friday, September 20, 2019
Strong Culture and Organizational Effectiveness
Strong Culture and Organizational Effectiveness Organizational culture is the pattern of shared values and beliefs that help individuals understand organizational functioning. The characteristics that captures the essence of organizations culture include member identity, group emphasis, people focus, unit integration, control, risk tolerance, reward criteria, conflict tolerance, means-end orientation, and open system focus. Appraising the organization on these ten characteristics gives a composite picture of the organizations culture. However, we have strong culture and weak culture. Strong cultures are those in which organizational values and beliefs are widely shared and significantly influence peoples behaviour on the job. Organizations with a strong culture create clear and coherent values and expect that members agree with and care intensely about those values. Denison identifies four key traits that an organization should master in order to be effective as mission, consistency, involvement, and adapt ability. Strong organizational cultures have been linked to increased staff alignment, resulting in enhanced organizational effectiveness. However some research shows that strong cultures may enhance short-term success but inhibit long-term organizational performance, and may even contribute to long-term failure by preventing organizations from adapting to changing contingencies. TABLE OF CONTENTS (JUMP TO) 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Culture 1.2 Organizational culture 1.3 Strong culture and weak culture 2.0 Strong culture and organizational effectiveness 2.1 Subculture 3.0 Leadership role in organizational effectiveness 4.0 Conclusion 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 CULTURE Culture is the way we do things are done around here (Schein, 1985) defining the actions of an organization in overt and covert ways, and when change takes place (Smollan, 2009). Culture can also be defined as the collective programming of the mind (Hofstede, 2005). According to Jan Vom (2011), two significant elements covers the scope of culture: (1) cultures manifestation (2) scope of the referenced group. Cultures manifestation Organizations culture is manifested through visible structures and strategies (Jan Vom, 2011). The three layers of culture related to its manifestation are; artefacts, espoused values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 2004 as quoted in Jan Vom, 2011). The visible artefact through which culture is manifested includes companys symbols, its products, architecture, way of dressing, typical behaviours and rituals. It is important to connect artefacts to values. Espoused values are less visible and encompass publicly expressed strategies, goals, norms and rules that provide the daily operating doctrine for members of the organization. Basic underlying assumptions are a subconscious part of the culture which accounts for a mental map of fundamental aspects of life such as the nature of time and space, the role of social hierarchies, and the relative importance of work, family, and self-development. These represent the essence of culture. Scope of the referenced group Reference group refers to the set of people an individual perceives as belonging to his or her work environment which defines the social world of work in which he or she engages, including people with whom the individual does and does not communicate (Lawrence, 2006). Thus, the referenced group are the people within the context of the culture. The scope of the culture is defined depending on the referenced group (Jan Vom, 2011). 1.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture has been defined by numerous authors in different ways. Deshpande and Webster (1989) define organizational culture as the pattern of shared values and beliefs that help individuals understand organizational functioning thus providing norms for behaviour in the organization. In contrast, other authors such as Schein (1985) have put forward that culture is best thought of as a psychological tendency, which he refers to as basic assumptions, that members of an organization learns as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and considered valid because it is successful, and then taught to new members to use when facing those problems. However, no matter how we choose to define culture, culture is an important aspect of an organization, and organizations with strong culture increase the chances that members can execute its objectives and increase organizational performance by enlightening members on those objectives (Pottruck, 2001). Chantman, and Chaldwell (1991) quoted in Dwivedi (1995) suggests that the ten primary characteristics that, in aggregate, capture the essence of organizations culture includes: Member identity: how employees identify with the organization as a whole rather than with their type of job or field of professional expertise. Group emphasis: The degree to which work activities are organised around groups rather than individuals. People focus: the degree to which management decisions taken into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization. Unit integration: the degree to which units within the organization are encouraged to operate in a coordinated or interdependent manner. Control: the degree to which rules, regulations, and direct supervision are used to oversee and control employee behaviour. Risk tolerance: the degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative, and risk seeking. Reward criteria: the degree to which rewards such as salary increases and promotions are allocated according to employees performance rather than seniority, favouritism, or other non- performance factors. Conflict tolerance: the degree to which employees are encouraged to air conflicts and criticisms openly. Means-ends orientation: the degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes. Open system focus: the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to changes in the external environment. These characteristics reflect the organizations value and are used to determine an organizations culture. Depending on its strength, it can bring about organizational effectiveness (Dwivedi, 1995). However, some researchers have questioned how well strong cultures improve organizational performance. According to Denison (1990), organizations with strong cultures had greater returns on investments, but this only happens in the short run, after three years the relationship between cultural consistency and performance becomes negative. Also, Alicia (2002) is of the opinion that strong cultures may facilitate short-term success but inhibit long-term organizational performance, and may even contribute to long-term failure by preventing organizations from adapting to changing contingencies. Thus, while cultural strength may bring about increase in organizational performance in the short run, they may also inhibit an organizations ability to adapt, change, and innovate. 1.3 STRONG CULTURE AND WEAK CULTURE An organizations culture can either be strong or weak depending on the degree of alignment of the organizations value and employees response to stimuli because of their alignment with it (Olivier, 2009). Strong cultures: Here, organizational values and beliefs are widely shared with significant influence on peoples behaviour with respect to their job (John, 2006). It encompasses the ability to influence and motivate organizational members to act in an approved manner in the organization, and also an agreement on the part of members, regarding the importance of the organizational values (Schein, 2004). Weak cultures: Here, there is lack of motivation by the members of the organization, and it encompasses little or no strategy-implementing assistance since there are no traditions, beliefs, values, common bonds, or behavioural norms that management can use to motivate to execute the chosen strategy (John, 2006). 2.0 STRONG CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS Culture has long been regarded as essential to organizational effectiveness (Schein, 1992). According to Alicia (2002); Organizations with a strong culture create clear and coherent values and expect members to care and agree with those values, even if core values emphasize dissent and creativity (Flynn Chatman, 2001). Chatman (2002) is of the opinion that organizations attain strategic advantages through strong cultures. For example, Southwest Airlines has better performance than its competitors, over a period of time, due to its strong culture of focusing on keeping costs low and customers happy. However, Denison (1990) postulated a model that highlights the four key traits of organizational culture, which includes; mission, consistency, involvement, adaptability. Denisons research has demonstrated that effective organizations have high culture scores in all four traits. Thus, effective organizations are likely to have cultures that are adaptive, yet highly consistent and predictable, and that foster high involvement, but do so within the context of a shared sense of mission. External Focus (Adaptability + Mission) The adaptation hypothesis asserts that an organization must hold a system of norms and beliefs which support the capacity of an organization to receive, interpret, and translate signals from its environment into internal behavioural changes that increase its chances for survival, growth and development (Denison, 1990). Schein (1985) emphasizes that a culture usually consists of some adaptive collective behavioural responses, and the capacity to manage these responses is key to organizations effectiveness. A mission, on the other hand, provides purpose and meaning by defining a social role for an institution and defining the relevance of individual roles as related to the institutional role (Denison, 1990). Hence, an organization that is focused on adapting and changing in response to the external environment, and also has well defined goals and objectives has a strong external focus which is key to organizational effectiveness. A strong external focus typically impacts revenue, sales growth, and market share (Denison, 2006). Internal Focus (Involvement + Consistency) High levels of involvement and participation create a sense of ownership and responsibility (Denison, 1990). Members of an organization are able carry out coordinated action when they shared system of beliefs, and values, which are widely understood. Consistency involves defining the values and systems that are the basis of a strong culture. Strong organizational culture which is consistent leads to organizational effectiveness by priding itself on the quality of its products or services. An organization with strong internal focus has higher levels of quality, fewer defects, less rework, good resource utilization, and high employee satisfaction (Denison, 2006). Flexibility (Adaptability + Involvement) A flexible organization has the capability to change in response to the environment with focus is on the marketplace and its people. An organization that is flexible has higher levels of product and service innovation, creativity, and a fast response to the changing needs of customers and employees (Denison, 2006). Stability (Mission + Consistency) A stable organization has the capacity to remain focused and predictable over time. An organization that is stable has high return on assets, investments and sales, as well as strong busi ness operations (Denison, 2006). Hence an organization should master these key traits and strengthen its culture in order to be effective. According to Barney (1986), strong organizational culture facilitates increased staff alignment, thus strengthening organizational effectiveness, and increasing employee productivity and commitment. However, on the contrary, Gagliardi (1986) suggested that organizations with strong cultures are only capable of a limited change because of resistance by members to changing those strongly held and widely shared values. For example, such resistance threatened the survival of Westinghouse electrical company in the 1950s, by preventing it from reaping any benefits from acquiring a factory automation business. It was concluded that the failure was due to the organizations culture of merging an entrepreneurial organizational activity into a relatively slow-moving, large American corporation (Nohria, Dwyer, Dalzell, 2002). This further reinforces the point that cultural strength increases organizational performance, but only in the short run, they may also inhibit an organizations ability to change. However Alicia (2002) suggests that organizations facing such problems can use subcultures to become more agile and to drive innovation. 2.1 SUBCULTURE Subcultures are groups whose common characteristic is a set of shared norms and beliefs, formed based on an array of individual, societal, and organizational characteristics (Chatman, 2002). Organizational subcultures may be based on membership in various groups (departments, workgroups, and teams), levels of hierarchies, professional and occupational affiliations, socio-demographic categories (sex, ethnicity, age, or nationality) and performance-related variables such as organizational commitment and work performance (Trice Beyer, 1993 quoted by Chatman, 2002) Hofstede (1998) suggested that subculture provides information about employees perceptions of the organization, and thus managers lack of awareness of existing or potential subcultures can be damaging. As mentioned earlier, members of strong cultures may resist change, and change within strong culture organizations may lead to conflict. Subcultures can absorb this conflict, with the value of the organizational culture intact. Thus, subcultures may offer a way for organizations with strong culture to be flexible enough to change and adapt to external occurrences (Chatman, 2002). 3.0 LEADERSHIP ROLE IN ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS According to Bryman (1992), the leader could alter or impact the organizational culture. Weese (1995) suggested that leaders have tempered positions relative to the impact that a leader can have on shaping and preserving the culture of an organization, that the culture is the organization, not something that the organization possesses, and consequently, culture change is an arduous assignment. Hence, transformational leaders are needed to help shape and maintain the desired culture of an organization (Schein, 1993), which may link to organizational effectiveness. High transformational leaders possess strong organizational cultures and carry out culture-building activities, especially the customer-orientation function, to a greater extent than other leaders do (Weese, 1995). Also, Bass and Avolio (1992) suggested that transformational leadership and organizational culture is vital to organizational effectiveness. Yukl (1994) defined transformational leadership as the process of influencing major changes in the attitudes and assumptions of organizational members and building commitment for the organizations mission, objectives and strategies. Leaders should therefore focus on developing a strong organizational culture which supports achieving set goals and objectives, coordinated team work, customer orientation, as well as managing change in the organization. 4.0 CONCLUSION It has been established that culture has a significant impact on organizations performance. Organizations with strong culture, and are able to maintain its stability enjoy better performance than weaker cultural organizations. Organizations should pay attention to mission, consistency, involvement, and adapt ability in order to have organizational effectiveness (Denison, 2006). Also, it is important for transformational leaders to possess a stronger organizational culture. However, strong cultures may inhibit an organizations ability to change, but such organizations can use subcultures to become more agile and to drive innovation (Chatman, 2002).
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